Abenaki

(Wabanaki + Western Abenaki)

    The retreat of glacial ice occurs over time, exposing land, creating fertile environments and waterways.Many Wabanakis, as other Indian nations, do not accept the Bering Strait migration theory. It is important to read the individual Creation Stories.

See: Sebago-Presumpscot Anthropology Project for this and later periods. There is a wonderful set of glaciation images at this site as well.

     1497 - Sebastian Cabot
1524 - Giovanni da Verrazano
European myth of Norumbega - rich Native kingdom in what is now New England - this is false, but it brings explorers, who find a fortune in fur - see The Myths of Norumbega

See Peoples Distribution Before 1600

    Beaver is almost extinct in Europe. Trading for pelts is an active part of Indian economies. By the end of this period, beaver are almost gone from some coastal areas, affecting hunting grounds and patterns.
Some Native economies become increasingly dependent on European trade goods. Europeans adopt many Native foods and clothing styles. Latter settlements will also adopt Native agricultural methods.
In addition to adopting trade goods, Wabanakis learn to sail European trade ships, establishing their own trade routes. Later, they will be able to wage war on the seas as well.
Native diasporas and migrations have begun - see Wawenoc Diasporas for an overview covering Eastern Maine

Champlain sails up the Penobscot (for France)

English Captain Weymouth captures 5 Wabanakis

 Samuel de Champlain sees Indians growing corn, beans and squash; he trades with the Penobscot.

One of Weymouth's captives returns after two years and warns the Wabanakis not to trust the English.

Estimated population of Wabanakis in Maine & the Maritimes: 32,000

There are coastal anchorages, for trading and not permanent, along the Maine coast. One of them is in Georgetown.

Coastal tribes vie for control of fur trade;

Most of Maine "Granted" to companies or individuals by French or English kings (overlapping Grants - see Maine Dirigo maps)

1607 - Popham Colony - Penobscots become strong through fur trade - Tarrateen War between Penobscots and rival Micmacs and Maliseets
1610 - baptism of Mi'kmac chief Membertou into Roman Catholic religion
Micmac are better equipped for war because of established ties to Europeans- 1616 - Micmac victory - they sweep down into Massachusetts, but encounter Plague

1614 - Captain John Smith encounters while Penobscots exploring NE coast - the coast is too settled already so he travels further south to find a plantation (large farm) site.

 1616-1619 - "Great Dying" - plague, smallpox, cholera, measles, whooping cough kill 75%; some survivors move east and to Canada, further reducing productive population; epidemics continue until 1768, with minor epidemics through the 1800's; not only are men killed, but the women and elders who are necessary to the continuation of culture.

1621 - Plymoth Colony - read Nathaniel Philbrick's Mayflower for an excellent summary of this turning point and the next 50 years.

French traders move trade centers to St. Lawrence Valley due to dwindling fur supplies - this creates "trade lines" whose identity is important through the War of 1812.

French and English fight over lands between Massachusetts and Quebec - fur trade between Kennebec and St. Croix rivers much diminished; Mohawks threaten; Iroquois make alliance with Dutch (against "Eastern NE Indians")

Firearms become a trade item, used by both French and English to gain allegiance of Wabanaki; alcohol is traded, causing some Wabanakis to suffer when furs are traded for liquor. The English used alcohol to "affect" treaty discussions.

French missions established after 1646.

 Penobscots cede some lands to France, other small alliances made due to growing Wabanaki anger and unease over English hunger for land; trade further diminished

Many Indians from Mass. flee to NY and Canada in "The Great Dispersal" - others join the Abenaki (various tribes)

See discussion at The Lake Regions of Maine.

The Pennacocks are destroyed as a nation. The "peace" opens up Maine for settlement by English

Wabanakis remain generally neutral in French/English (with allies of other Native nations) struggles, but at times support French

1676 - English expand settlements into Penobscot lands - all English settlements in Southern ME destroyed

1678 - Penobscot-English alliance for peace (non-aggression) - Penobscot agree to let English settlements remain but not to allow them to expand; payment of corn by settlers to Indians is part of treaty (settlers have taken the best farm land along the river valleys)

As settlements expand over the next 100 years, ancestral forests (white pine, ash, cedar) are destroyed. The resulting change in animal and plant ecology greatly affects the Wabanakis.

See Usurpation

Over the next 50 years, many Abenakis move to Canada to avoid genocide (by angry English), forming a "loose confederation" with the French, who they initially trust due to the French willingness to assimilate and understand some Wabanaki culture. In reality, many tribes exercise an on-off and independent war against the English. Resources in Canada are not sufficient for the new population. About halfway through, greater numbers and better war technology turn the tide in favor of the English.

1689 - English "scalp bounty" on "Eastern Indians" of all ages, men and women - this becomes increasingly higher - Indians interpret this as a desire to destroy them entirely.  This, and the consistent taking of their lands, are reasons for war. The English think Natives are siding with the French in a war about the conquest of a territory. They refuse to accept any "aboriginal right" to the lands.

Jesuits convert many Wabanakis in Canada and follow them when they begin to return to Maine. French supply them with firearms to buffer English attacks. Jesuits urge Wabanakis not to trade with English ("heretics"), but also see trade as harmful to Wabanakis. [English settlers and governors are largely Protestant and a Catholic-Protoestant conflict continues in Britain.]

Over-trading of furs causes a "glut" of fur on the European market and prices drop, hurting Wabanaki economy further after the French restrict trade (to force prices back up).

For the next 100 years or more, Land Grants are made of ancestral lands - find documents and maps at Windows on Maine

Native population grows, absorbing migrations of Natives fleeing British in Massachusetts colony. Traditional subsistence food sources diminish due to burning of lands, settlement, and war.

 Penobscot-French alliance at the urging of the priests
Treaty of 1690 is unfavorable to Wabanakis

Phip's Treaty of 1693 - subjugates Wabanakis and allows for English settlement on "deeded" land - signed by Madockawando but not accepted by many kinship groups;
Treaty of 1699 is same as 1693

1687 - Castine Mission 
1688 - French mission is established at current sight of Bangor;
1691 - Penobscots participate in massacre at York settlement;
1693 - Penobscots try but fail to arrange a treaty;
1699 - From English perspective, Wabanakis acknowledge in treaty they are subjects of the Crown and  withdraw many land claims; Wabanakis pledge neutrality;

Many Wabanakis resent exploitation by French, who urge war but do not provide sufficient support or supplies

1713 - Treaty of Utrecht - French cede Acadia (Nova Scotia and Wabanaki land) to England;
1713 - Treaty of Portsmouth - English and Wabanakis - mutual respect for territory promised, rights to "lands held" as of 1693 - (document is available at Library of Congress)

 1722 declared by Shute

1724 - Dummer's War (Forth Anglo-Wabanaki War) highlighted by murder of Jesuit Father Rasles/Rale, who has urged Penobscots to fight to protect homelands

 1725 - Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Penobscot, Micmac, Maliseet and British Crown - English agree not to disturb Wabanaki hunting and fishing territories (in exchange for loyalty)

1726 - Dummer's Treaty

  1724 - English destroy villages, including Old Town and Norridgewock (massacre women and children). Indians disperse, but retaliate by attacking settlements on lower Kennebec  - English determination to exterminate Wabanakis is evident - scalp bounties increase in value - English pursue Abanaki into current New Hampshire, many migrate to French territory (later returning)

In Dummer's Treaty, English recognize Wabanaki ownership of lands in Maine, but not Micmac and Maliseet township of lands in Nova Scotia - after the Revolution, Non-natives took ownership of Micmac lands on coast of Nova Scotia in violation of this treaty - Penobscots promise to join English vs. other tribes - download lesson plan in .pdf format from Maine Memory - this lesson plan (.pdf download) deals with points of view re. the treaty

Dummer's Treaty is affirmed in 1735 by Governor Belcher (for Massachusetts) and again in 1749

  English declare war on Micmacs and Maliseets, who attack British outposts in Canadian Maritimes;
1746 - one third of Micmac population dies in epidemic;
British bring over 2,500 settlers to MicMac and Maliseet lands in the Maritimes and establish a colonial government

Penobscot treaty with English;
Abanaki and Maliseet sign peace treaty with British re: Nova Scotia
1752 & 1753 - Treaties with English (except for Micmac/Abenaki)

1760 (Boston) - treaty between Massachusetts and remaining Natives in Maine territory

Treaty between Passamaquoddy and St. John's Maliseets and British Crown ;
1763 -Treaty of Paris - France gives Canada territory to England

 1755 - Massachusetts declares war on Abenaki tribes, Penobscots asked to move settlements - they refuse and retain their lands without a formal treaty. Proclamation of 1755 sets bounty on Penobscot scalps (download lesson in .pdf format from Maine Memory)

Western Indians migrate to Canada

  Royal Proclamation of 1763 recognizes Native land rights; Wabanakis can keep land not sold or granted to the English by the end of the war, but it also opens most of New England for British settlement;
Maliseet ancestral lands on St. Johns settled by British.
Hunting, trapping, fishing rights in Canada are guaranteed as well as recognition of land ownership;
Acadians expelled from Maritimes along with MicMacs who had intermarried.

1776 - Maliseet and Micmac treaty with United States follows meeting at Watertown

1779 - "Mickmack" treaty with King George (peace, non-alliance with Americans)

 Some Passamaquoddies join British - most side with colonists

General Washington makes extensive promises, including preservation of hunting land and rights

 1776 - Maliseets in St. Johns valley petition British for protection of their hunting rights in ancestral lands (granted) - they do not pledge to support in war

By the terms of the 1776 treaty, 600 men are to fight "for the American cause" under Washington, and the Passamaquoddy are to be formally urged to give their support (they do - many join the rebels) - most Native fighters do so in Maine

Mi'kmaq's promised in treaty security of ancestral hunting and fishing rights

The boundary to the north and east cuts right through Wabanaki ancestral territory. They were not consulted, even though they supported both sides in the war.

1785: Acadian settlers take Maliseet land in exchange for promise to protect Natives - over the next 50 years, Maliseets gradually migrate from ancestral lands (http://www.upperstjohn.com/history/natives.htm)

By 1789, Micmac homelands in Nova Scotia are taken from them, resources (lumber, moose, etc.) on the way to being destroyed

Passamaquoddy lands are sold.  All-in-all, they lose eventually 80% of ancestral territory by land sale and charter.

1786: Penobscots bargain to "cede" much ancestral land above tidewater in Penobscot Valley - an agreement is made with General Lincoln for goods in exchange for land (for townships) - settlement increases - Penobscots do not cede land and attempt to stop surveying of land on either side of the river - this is not a formal agreement until after 1796

Ownership of Indian land can not be transferred without consent of Congress. RE: Land sales in Maine, it is interpreted by Masssachusetts in this way: This Act does not apply to Wabanaki because they remain under the jurisdiction of Commonwealth of Massachusetts (later Maine). Federal Indian policies, including services and financial assistance, also do not apply. 

"In 1790, the U.S. Congress had passed the Non-Intercourse Act that declared the federal government must ratify all treaties between the States and Indian Nations. Because Congress never ratified the 1794 and 1796 treaties with the Maine tribes, the tribes successfully negotiated the Maine Indian Land Claims Settlement Act in 1980." Abbe Museum

 Jay Treaty between English, Americans, First Nations peoples - grants unrestricted passage and free trade over artificial borders (see Article III);
Treaty with MA gives Passamaquoddy lands in Maine but is never ratified by Congress

 Reservations established in Maine - great loss of ancestral land - agreement is negotiated by John Allen, a loyal friend of Passamaquoddy, but even so "it is the best they can get"

1816 - Indian Township reservation

Micmac remain neutral, other tribes vary in involvement, generally on the side of the British who capture most of the East coast of Maine

A proposal is made by an alliance of Native tribes to create an Indian State south and west of Lake Erie - this is rejected by the War Hawks, who wish to expand American lands into the west and Canada for settlement;
Native land claims are not heeded

  After War of 1812, the treaty returns to Indians land occupied in 1811, in effect further reducing the reservation and territorial lands - see Article IX, http://members.tripod.com/~war1812/treaty.html or at Yale University

There is no Native representation at the treaty talks. "After the War of 1812 ended, the surviving American, Canadian and British soldiers all went home, but many native warriors and their families could not since they no longer had any to return to." http://www.galafilm.com/1812/e/background/nat_peace.html 

Penobscots and Passamaquoddies become "wards" of Maine with reservations at Indian Island, Pleasant Point and Peter Dana Point - Indians are disenfranchised citizens and lose sovereignty over reservation lands; lands sold and leased by the state without tribal consent - see "treaty" document available from Windows on Maine.

1821- Indian Agents assigned by State - they distribute funds and goods to tribes, families and individual for the next 150 years, often allowing much less than necessary for subsistence

State also authorizes sale/lease of Passamaquoddy lands without authorization or payment to the Nation.

Trust funds established for Passamaquoddies and Penobscots by State - sale of timber, hay and shore rights go into fund - interest is to be paid to tribes, but is not for 110 years (until 1969).

1824 - Federal  Bureau of Indian Affairs established; Passamaquoddies receive (limited) Federal funds for schools to "civilize and educate" Indian children and provide for needs of adults (allocated by Reverand or Priest, depending on who was given them)

1829 - Penobscots petition to sell two lower townships

1830 - Indian Removal Act begins the forced relocation of most Nations east of the Mississippi - does not affect the Wabanakis

Indian sovereignty is now qualified; nations are no longer "sovereign foreign nations," but "domestic dependent nations" that retain all sovereign powers except those specifically taken away by Congress; relationship to the federal government "was as a ward to his guardian" establishing duty of federal government to act for benefit of Indians; Bureau of Indian Affairs established; Indians have no input into these decisions.

Due to treaties signed with Massachusetts and Maine (but not with the federal government), Penobscots and Passamaquoddies are exempt from this relationship, "state Indians," along with Micmacs and Maliseets in Maine. This remains true until 1979, when Passamaquoddies and Penobscots gain the same federal rights as other Indians (including $) and state interference in tribal government stops.

Income is earned for the next 100 years by sales of crafts to non-Natives, lumbering, ice harvesting, guiding, and "shows" for non-Natives and tourists.

Sale by Penobscots of 4 townships (over 95% of currently held land - referred to in 1818 treaty) - purchase price of $50,000 to be placed in interest-earning trust (or goes to Indian Agents) - they retain as Reservation islands in the Penobscot River
Lesson using the documents and tracing this history of this land sale

 Border between Canada and US established. US recognizes settler ownership of Native lands;

Passamaquoddies given a non-voting seat in the House

Maine courts state necessity of subjection of Indians "to our parental control; in disregard of some...principles of the rights of man." A-21

1887

Dawes Act - USA

summary
Native Commentary

For Micmacs, this is followed by sovereignty (control of affairs) in reserves
All aboriginals given right to vote in 1959

Indian Adoption project - many Indian children removed from homes and placed in non-Native foster or adopted - by 1974 it is estimated that 25% of Indian children have been removed from their homes and are being raised by non-Natives;
1978 - Indian Child Welfare Act protects Native children

Period in which many leave reservations to seek wage labor in industrial areas. By the end of this period, media exposure to Civil Rights activism is causing Wabanakis to question "status quo," beginning a period of activism and renewed desire for sovereignty.

  Penobscots and Passamaquoddies receive $27 million trust fund (13.5 each) and $26.8 million each to buy 300,000 acres of land (to split evenly), in exchange for giving up land claims. Maine requires that they also give up Federal rights and recognition, placing some aspects of reservation under state control (see Marshall Decision). State services to Indians are terminated (to be assumed by tribes), including Department of Indian Affairs.
See The Wabanakis of Maine & the Maritimes, D-98

 Micmacs are left out of the Settlement Act and lose state benefits.

In Canada, Micmacs gain recognition of treaty rights in 1982, section 35 of the Constitution Act

Post-Settlement Acts economic activities include blueberry farms, a cement company, and biomass energy plants (Passamaquoddy) and initiatives for conservation and economic development (e.g. BNAS interest)

Cultural revivals due to return of retired elders to reservations - revival of tribal languages, oral tradition, traditional skills

An Act to Require Teaching of Maine Native American History and Culture in Maine's Schools

See: LD 291: Essential Understandings..

Read about the return.

Read a letter about the 1851 small pox epidemic at Windows on Maine

Decision to close BNAS (Brunswick Naval Air Station) by 2011

Penobscots and Passamaquoddies pursue economic independence - make proposals for use of some of the public lands

Penobscots and Passamaquoddies submit proposals to Federal government and Brunswick for use of some of the lands and buildings (not for casinos)

Passamaquoddy Nation seeks approval for referendum vote on racino on tribal lands

Penobscot Nation opens mail-order pharmacy, PIN Rx

January: Governor vetoes bill allowing referendum

House defeats bill allowing Passamaquoddy to build casino on tribal land; petitions to require referendum fall short